Wednesday 30 November 2016

Parkinson's disease may start in the gut and travel to the brain

It seems the nerve damage behind Parkinson's starts in the stomach or colon before spreading to brain cells - but we don't know what's causing it via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

UK’s first three-parent babies likely to be conceived in 2017

The approach might not always work but it should be safer than existing methods for preventing harmful and sometimes fatal mitochondrial diseases via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

'It is time to make' three-person babies

It is time to start making babies from three people, scientists advising the fertility regulator say. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

UK has 'first sexually transmitted Zika'

The first likely case of sexual transmission of Zika virus in the UK is reported by the authorities. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Your Brain on Alcohol Blackouts

“Uuuuggh…no, no, no, no, noooo!?”

Like a scene out of Hangover 3, the moment you remember that you don’t remember the night before…is gut-wrenching! It’s perfectly normal to feel riddled with guilt and shame as you wrack your brain for any evidence you may have made a fool of yourself the night before. Memory seemingly wiped clean, the best you can do to piece together the evening’s events is rummage through your pockets for clues, call up your partners in crime and prepare for the worst.

In the past it was thought that a blackout from being on the bevy was strictly an alcoholics problem. However, today research shows that while blackouts are indeed more common in alcoholics, for at least 50% of non-alcoholics that engage in rapid and excessive drinking, blacking out is a real risk.

It was also a premature idea that alcohol disrupts brain function and depression of the central nervous system in general, but now we know blackouts involve the failing of specific networks in the brain.

A comprehensive and critical review of the blackout science research published in Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, provides the most detailed view yet as to what happens to memories when your brain is blacking out (see diagram below).

Alcohol has been shown thus far to generally interfere with practically all stages of the memory process.

Short term-memory for example, can still be relatively intact when on a blackout. When short-term memory is fully functioning it tells us what is going on around us for the last 15-30 seconds or so, i.e. it tells us where we are and what we are doing essentially right now. It does this by tapping into our sensory memory (see brown labels in diagram below), the super-short term memory that gives us the ability to look/hear/taste/touch something, and remember what it felt like with just a second of observation.

Largely stored in the prefrontal cortex , you can think of short-term memory like RAM in a computer (see yellow labels in diagram below), it temporarily holds the info we are currently needing to get things done. As short-term memory still ‘kind-of’ functions during a blackout, detailed conversations are not impossible, although they may get annoyingly repetitive. And although definitely not recommended, managing complex tasks like driving are still just about feasible.

Yet in order to truly learn and retain information and remember the events of a night out on the town, it must be transferred from short-term memory into more permanent, long-term memory structures for storage as long-term memories (see orange labels in diagram below). It is the failing of this memory storage process — called memory encoding — that is completely kaput in a brain on a blackout.

Basically, when you blackout, memory encoding is where it all goes wrong.

Three brain structures in particular — the hippocampus, the frontal lobe and the medial septal — contribute to the blackout brain’s failed encoding of the night’s events.

Sensory (brown), short-term (yellow) and long-term (orange) memory structure labels are colored accordingly. Red colored labels refer to those failing on blackouts. Grey colored transparent labels refer to structures connecting the hippocampus to the outlined regions of the cortex *adapted from Wetherill et al. (2016)

The Hippocampus – The Head Honcho

The hippocampus, the horse-shoe shape colored green in the diagram, is found deep in the center of the brain. Its the head honcho when it comes to long-term memories, and in the case of blackouts, their non-existence.

In order to successfully create a memory for long-term storage specialized neurons in the hippocampus, called CA1 pyramidal cells, communicate with other essential areas of the brain. This way the hippocampus can receive information associated with sensory and short-term memory, as well as the emotional content of the memory being processed, and relay processed information back out.

Much like human’s when drunk, CA1 cells’ communication skills break down when under the influence. More specifically, it is thought that ethanol (and other drugs) activate a signal protein inside the cell called striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase, or STEP, which is found in high quantities in the hippocampus and striatum.

When activated by alcohol, STEP switches off proteins important for synaptic activity (the receiving and transmission of signals between neurons in the brain). STEP also results in the production of steroids that block synaptic strengthening and plasticity known as long-term potentiation (i.e. the strengthening of connections between neurons due to increases in activity that is the basis of learning and memory).

In summary, when on a blackout, alcohol gets STEP stepping all over the proper functioning of synapses, specifically disrupting the hippocampal CA1 cell communication needed for the process of recording a memory (encoding), and it also inhibits the neuroplastic strengthening of connections needed to make a long-term memory long-term.

The Medial Septal – The Gate Keeper

The medial septal is like the gatekeeper to information entering the hippocampus. It sends a type of brainwave called theta waves to the hippocampus. These theta waves change the excitement level of pyramidal cells in the hippocampus, thereby decreasing or increasing the likelihood of them being able to receive information from other structures in the brain.

When the pyramidal cells are excited new information has a greater chance of being processed than if the cells are suppressed. Alcohol disrupts the theta rhythm largely through suppressing the signal coming from the medial septal to the hippocampus.

The theory goes that without the theta wave excitatory signals coming from the medial septal, the gates to incoming information are closed, and the hippocampus can’t communicate effectively with other parts of the brain that are needed for long-term memory encoding. In fact, simply putting alcohol directly onto the medial septum causes memory loss.

Frontal Lobe – Details, Details, Details!

Key areas of the frontal lobe play important roles in both short–term memory and the formation and retrieval of long–term memories, including the prefrontal cortex well-known for its roles in rational decision making.

In long-term memory the prefrontal cortex has multiple roles, isolated to different regions within the brain structure. For example, the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex’s is specifically involved in the controlled selection of goal-relevant information. In other words, when recording a memory this part of the prefrontal cortex is involved in remembering the important parts of an event, like the specific gift you gave at a friend’s party, and not the less relevant info like the color of the pair of pants you were wearing at the time.

While the prefrontal cortex has shown to have reduced activity that is associated with memory impairments when under the influence, those that abuse alcohol have a very real risk of essentially drinking away the neurons in the frontal lobe, including the prefrontal cortex.

In fact, alcohol-induced dementia, a disease caused by alcohol abuse similar to dementia, is characterized by the “shrinkage” of the frontal lobe that is associated with both short-term and long-term memory loss.

However, as of yet, it is poorly understood how even acute alcohol use can leave the prefrontal cortex’s short-term memory functions relatively intact (remember? like RAM), but impair the encoding functions on route to the hippocampus. It may likely be due to the different effects alcohol has on the different types of neurons in the prefrontal cortex that are specifically important to either long-term or short-term memory.

The Big Picture

Understanding how alcohol can lead to memory loss is not only relevant to cases of alcohol and drug-addiction. The malfunctioning mechanisms, brain structures, neurons and molecules involved (like STEP) are the same as those involved in memory loss as a result of anxiety, stress and trauma, as well as in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and dementia. Understanding alcohol’s impact on memory may lead to the development of therapeutics and interventions that can restore these mechanisms in a variety of diseases and disorders, and give back the previous gift of long-term memories.

References

Wetherill, R. R., & Fromme, K. (2016). Alcohol-induced blackouts: A review of recent clinical research with practical implications and recommendations for future studies. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 40(5), 922–935. doi:10.1111/acer.13051

White, A. (2003). What Happened? Alcohol, Memory Blackouts, and the Brain. Alcohol Research & Health, 27(2), 186–196.

Image via jarmoluk / Pixabay.

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What happens when someone calls 999

BBC Scotland follows a 999 call from the moment it is received by health service call handlers. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Kansas sperm donor to same-sex couple not liable for child support

A man who donated sperm to two women is not liable for child support, a US court rules. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Education on personalised diabetes risk doesn't motivate behaviour change

Study finds people told personalised risk do not do more exercise than people given general information

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Quitting smoking at any age reduces the risk of death after 70

Smokers aged 70 or older are more than three times more likely to die than never-smokers

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Hospital discharge of children following asthma attack needs improvement

Only 24% are advised to visit their GP within two working days of discharge

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Doctors Should Counsel Even Low-Risk Patients on Heart Health

U.S. government panel says advice on healthy eating and physical activity likely benefits all
Source: HealthDay via Exercise and Physical Fitness New Links: MedlinePlus RSS Feed Read More Here..

HIV vaccine: Clinical trial begins in South Africa

Large clinical trial for a vaccine to protect against HIV transmission is underway in South Africa. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Women with PMS should be offered CBT

Update guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of women with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) published by RCOG

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Princess Kasune

Princess Kasune is one of Zambia's most outspoken Aids activists and was recently elected to become its first publicly known HIV-positive MP. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

More doctors to be recruited as NHS leaders

Health Secretary outlines measures to boost the number of clinicians in senior NHS leadership roles

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Are trampoline parks safe enough?

A group of organisations, including the governing body of gymnastics, want trampoline parks to adhere to a set of safety guidelines. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Specialist paramedic: 'It could be anything, anywhere'

A dementia patient with chest pain, a man with prostate cancer, a feverish baby and an alcoholic who has hit his head... all patients attended by one paramedic in one day. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Philip Morris could stop making conventional cigarettes

Philip Morris is launching a new cigarette in the UK which it says could see it stop selling conventional cigarettes altogether. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Sleep deprivation 'costs UK £40bn a year'

Sleep-deprived workers are costing the UK economy £40bn a year and face a higher risk of death, says a new study. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Quitting smoking in your 60s can still boost life expectancy

A new study suggests that it is never too late to stop smoking - and the earlier you give up, the longer you are likely to live via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

Ambulance crews 'struggle to reach 999 calls'

Ambulance services are struggling to reach the seriously ill quickly enough after rising demand has left the system at breaking point, a BBC investigation has found. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Tuesday 29 November 2016

WHO issues new guidance on HIV self-testing ahead of World AIDS Day

In advance of World AIDS Day, WHO has released new guidelines on HIV self-testing to improve access to and uptake of HIV diagnosis. via WHO news Read More Here..

6 Simple Gifts You Can Make in 10 Minutes (No Cooking Necessary)

6 Simple Gifts You Can Make in 10 Minutes (No Cooking Necessary) Blog Post

I LOVE this time of year: the food, the decorations, the music, all the parties and celebrations, spending time with family. I especially love giving gifts. Finding the perfect something for all the people in my life is like solving a big warm-fuzzy puzzle.

via EatingWell Blogs - All Blog Posts More READ

6 Healthy Holiday Treats & Snacks to Make with Your Kids

6 Healthy Holiday Treats & Snacks to Make with Your Kids Blog Post

There's no shortage of sweets, treats and cookies during the holiday season. But sometimes, the kids (and if we're honest, grownups too!) just need a little break from the sugar high. I know that my own kids are much more likely to enjoy their food when they get to help make it. All that dipping and snipping and stirring is so tantalizing for little hands. These festive treats and snacks have celebration written all over them—with just enough sweet or no sweet at all. And I especially love them because they're so easy, even the littlest kids can help!

via EatingWell Blogs - All Blog Posts More READ

Mark Austin: Anorexia put my daughter in danger

The ITN newsreader talks about struggling to get the right care. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Bad memories stick around if you sleep on them

Students shown disturbing images found it hardest to suppress memories of them after a kip, hinting that sleep deprivation could help after traumatic events via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

'Teachers worried my self-harm was contagious'

Emma, who has bipolar disorder, describes how her friends and teachers treated her via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

A father and son talk about their experience battling OCD

Richard has suffered from Obsessive Compulsive Disorder since he was a teenager. He and his father have been talking about their lives. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Staff shortages now outweigh funding fears in NHS

Rising concern over the growing NHS ‘workforce gap’ among trust chairs and chief execs

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Scurvy makes surprise return in Australia

Doctors in Australia report a resurgence in the disease historically associated with sea explorers. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Trump names Obamacare critic Tom Price to key role

US President-elect Donald Trump names Obamacare critic Tom Price as his health secretary choice. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Let’s take on untreatable diseases, says gene therapy pioneer

Things went terribly wrong with gene therapy 20 years ago. But now scientists like Alessandra Biffi are wielding it against previously incurable conditions via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

Healthy women should take breast cancer pill, says NICE

Hundreds of thousands of healthy women should take pills to cut their risk of breast cancer, says NHS watchdog. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

'I worried it might explode'

An increasing number of British people are opting for cosmetic procedures - but how safe are they in such an unregulated industry? via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

117 candles

The world's oldest living person celebrates her 117th birthday - thanks, she says, to an odd diet. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Give pharmacists more prescribing rights to ease GP burden

Pharmacists say they should routinely be allowed to prescribe for long-term conditions

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Flu during pregnancy not linked to child’s autism risk

Autism no more likely among children whose mothers had flu jab in 2nd or 3rd trimester

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Fewer heart failure risk factors by midlife cuts long-term risk

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Caring role is damaging many elderly carers’ health

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Paralympian David Smith: A letter to my younger self

Paralympian David Smith reads out a letter – written to his younger, pre-surgery self. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

100 Women 2016: Living with scars and life after self-harm

Sarah and Becci are two young women who have stopped cutting themselves but are learning to live with the scars from when they self-harmed. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Thousands 'miss out on stroke treatment'

Thousands of patients miss out on a treatment that can prevent disability after a stroke, say UK experts. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Monday 28 November 2016

'We paid £6,000 for IVF add-on treatments'

Frankie Bailey-Wheeler and Tom Wheeler tell Victoria Derbyshire how they paid thousands of pounds for fertility treatments to boost IVF success rates. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

'Thunderstorm asthma' deaths in Melbourne rise to six

The number of people in Melbourne dying from the rare phenomenon thunderstorm asthma rises to six. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

New mothers to get more help with mental health

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Former NHS chief executive says Brexit poses a threat to NHS

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Experts advise against screening for Duchenne's

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Operating theatre fraudsters ordered to repay £650,000

Criminals charged NHS for thousands of hours of work that was never carried out

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Will NHS Sustainability and Transformation Plans work?

Will the NHS's savings plan work? Mark Lobel reports. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Ebola nurse banned for hiding Pauline Cafferkey's high temperature

A nurse who hid Ebola survivor Pauline Cafferkey's high temperature is suspended for two months. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

'No solid evidence' for IVF add-on success

BBC Panorama research suggests there is no hard evidence IVF add-ons increase pregnancy chances. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Prison suicides in England and Wales 'reach record levels'

A charity says there have been 102 suicides so far this year - the highest since its records began. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Making cells ignore mutations could treat genetic diseases

Diseases like cystic fibrosis and some cancers can be caused by mutations that make very short proteins. Changing how cells read the genetic code could help via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

Facial disfigurement: The children bullied for how they look

The Victoria Derbyshire programme meets children who have been bullied over the way they look. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Sunday 27 November 2016

Body Mass, Inflammation, and Cognition – What is the Strongest Link?

Body mass index (BMI) has been linked to inflammation, and systemic inflammation has been linked to decreased cognition. Now, a new study directly links a high BMI to lower cognitive functioning. The current study, published in the journal Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, is the first step in identifying a biologically plausible mechanism for the connection between BMI and cognition.

The authors evaluated 2 cohorts of people aged 50 years and older from the English Longitudinal Study of Aging. One group contained 9000 people and the other contained approximately 12,500.

When the authors correlated BMI, inflammatory markers, and cognition over a 6-year period, the results in both groups were the same: higher BMI was associated with greater cognitive decline.

Specifically, the higher the BMI at the beginning of the study, the greater increase in levels of inflammatory markers (specifically, C-reactive protein [CRP]) over the next 4 years. The change in CRP predicted greater decline in memory and executive functioning over the following 2 years (a total of 6 years from the start of the study.) Established literature already links inflammation to cognitive decline, but these findings take it a step further by highlighting the role of BMI in systemic inflammation.

Physical activity and body mass are related to cognitive function in adults. BMI is a function of body mass (i.e., weight) and height, and most data reveal an inverse relationship between physical activity and BMI. Likewise, regular exercise has been shown to prevent cognitive decline in adults who are middle aged and older.

The relationship between physical activity and BMI, however, is nuanced because BMI does not account for a person’s amounts of body fat or muscle mass, both of which can skew the calculation. Still, the general trends are intuitive: engage in more physical activity, decrease body weight, lower BMI, and improve cognition.

In the current study, BMI, by way of inflammation, predicted cognitive decline. While no absolute criteria are reported for preventing cognitive decline, the authors provide one more reason – if one is even needed – to maintain an appropriate body weight and levels of physical activity. Changes in cognition related to aging often take years – even decades – to appear, so a healthy BMI at younger ages may prevent cognitive changes years later.

A recent landmark study indicated that healthy lifestyle habits were cumulative in their protective effects against cognitive decline, asserting that exercise and maintaining health body weight were important for 20 years before the onset of cognitive decline.

Healthy BMI is correlated to decreased risks of many diseases and conditions that affect most of the major body’s major organ systems. Now, simply reducing BMI may be a simple, low-cost intervention to decrease the burden of cognitive impairment.

References

Bourassa, K., & Sbarra, D. A. (2016). Body mass and cognitive decline are indirectly associated via inflammation among aging adults. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.023

Hemmingsson, E., & Ekelund, U. (2006). Is the association between physical activity and body mass index obesity dependent? International Journal of Obesity. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803458

Memel, M., Bourassa, K., Woolverton, C., & Sbarra, D. A. (2016). Body mass and physical activity uniquely predict change in Cognition for aging adults. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50(3), 397–408. doi:10.1007/s12160-015-9768-2

Ronan, L., Alexander-Bloch, A. F., Wagstyl, K., Farooqi, S., Brayne, C., Tyler, L. K., & Fletcher, P. C. (2016). Obesity associated with increased brain age from midlife. Neurobiology of Aging, 47, 63–70. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.07.010

Szoeke, C., Lehert, P., Henderson, V. W., Dennerstein, L., Desmond, P., & Campbell, S. (2016). Predictive factors for verbal memory performance over decades of Ageing: Data from the women’s healthy Ageing project. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2016.05.008

Willey, J. Z., Gardener, H., Caunca, M. R., Moon, Y. P., Dong, C., Cheung, Y. K., … Wright, C. B. (2016). Leisure-time physical activity associates with cognitive decline. Neurology, 86(20), 1897–1903. doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000002582

Image via Wokandapix / Pixabay.

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Friday 25 November 2016

New Skin Patch Analyzes Your Sweat During Exercise

Used with a smartphone app, it's designed to offer information about your health, inventors say

HealthDay news image

Source: HealthDay via Exercise and Physical Fitness New Links: MedlinePlus RSS Feed Read More Here..

From Oxy to pot

An ex-pharmaceutical executive explains why he now banks on Canada's medical marijuana industry. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Locum doctor numbers rise 62% in past five years

Locum numbers working in hospitals rise to 16,002 in 2015

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Why some itches can’t be scratched – and how to combat them

One in five of us will experience chronic itch at some point and current remedies provide little relief. Scratching's normal success provides some clues via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

Regulator reverses decision on leukaemia drug

NICE says ibrutinib now available for routine NHS use

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CPR training drive for public to focus on youth

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Fall out from no-new-NHS money budget builds

Quality of care under serious threat, warn leaders

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Rates of mouth cancer rising sharply

GP oral cancer toolkit proving popular

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The rehab centre for mums and babies

Trevi House in Plymouth has the only remaining mother and baby drug and alcohol rehabilitation program in the UK. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Low social status 'can damage immune system'

Being bottom of the social heap alters the immune system and can damage health, study concludes. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Lung cancer cells spread like unanchored tents, study says

Scientists discover that spreading lung cancer cells are like collapsed tents adrift in the wind. via BBC News - Health Read More Here..

Thursday 24 November 2016

Being popular is good for health – in monkeys, at least

Life at the bottom of the social ladder can be damaging to health – but now a study in rhesus monkeys shows that health can improve in tandem with social standing via New Scientist - Health Read More Here..

Discover Your Drunk Personality Type – Nutty, Naughty or Nice?

There are certainly different types of drunks. “Sober Dave is boring, you should hang out with Drunk Dave, he’s wild!” or “She is usually a sweetheart, but watch out, she’s a mean drunk”. Having documented the transition to our drunk alter-egos for 100s of years, we are no strangers to the concept of drunk personality types. It doesn’t take a rocket scientist to see that alcohol can change our personalities from a sober type to a drunk type.

Today, research pioneered by University of Missouri graduate student, Rachel Winograd, supports the existence of at least 4 categories of drunk personalities. Importantly, she reveals if one’s type of drunk personality puts them at greater risk of alcohol-related harms (e.g. regrettable sexual encounters or drunken injuries), as well as alcohol addiction.

187 pairs of undergraduate drinking buddies answered questions linking their drunk personality to the “big five” personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism). Cluster analysis of these answers led to the description of four main drunk personality types as outlined below.

Not only is it a bit of fun to ask, “What kind of drunk are you?”, the drunk personality research field has promise for developing novel assessment-based and motivational interventions for problem drinkers.

Drunk Personality Type 1: The Ernest Hemingway

Drunk Personality Type Ernest Hemmingway

As Ernest Hemingway wrote, he ‘‘can drink hells any amount of whiskey without getting drunk.” Thankfully, this is the most common drunk personality type shared by 42% of the undergrads, who reported behaving roughly the same and only slightly changing when intoxicated.

Compared to the other personality types, the personality factors that tend to change the most when drunk — i.e. conscientiousness (being prepared, organized, prompt) and intellect ( understanding abstract ideas, being imaginative) — do not change drastically. It is no surprise then that this drunk personality type was not linked with experiencing more negative consequences or alcoholism symptoms.

Drunk Personality Type 2: The Mr Hyde

Drunk Personality Type Mr Hyde

Unfortunately, the second most common drunk personality type (23% of the sample) is the monster of a drunk named after the twisted alter-ego of Dr. Jeckyll, Mr. Hyde. They are characterized by being less conscientious, less intellectual and less agreeable than their sober selves or other drunk personality types.

Their drunk personality being the perfect recipe for increased hostility when under the influence, they are statistically more likely to have alcohol use disorder symptoms (i.e. have a higher risk of alcohol addiction). They also suffer a whole range of negative consequences from drinking, from blacking out to being arrested for drunken behaviour.

Drunk Personality Type 3: The Nutty Professor

Drunk Personality Type Nutty Professor

This type of drunk, comprising 20% of the study participants, does a personality 360 when they get drunk. They are particularly quiet and introverted when sober, but their drunken persona has a large increase in extraversion and decrease in conscientiousness (compared to the other drunk types and their sober self). This is likened to the the Disney character, Shermen Clump, when he transforms from taking his secret chemical formula in The Nutty Professor.

Despite having the most drastic personality change, Nutty Professors were not associated with experiencing more negative alcohol-related consequences from drinking.

Drunk Personality Type 4: The Mary Poppins

Drunk Personality Type Mary Poppins

The least common drunk personality type in the study, found in 15% of the participants, was ‘The Mary Poppins. They are not only particularly agreeable (i.e. embodying traits of friendliness)when sober, they are also agreeable and friendly when drunk. Like Hemmingways, they also decrease less than average in conscientiousness and intellect when getting drunk.

Their drunken sweetness sets them apart from less agreeable Hemmingways. They are essentially the opposite of the Mr Hyde drunk type of drunk, resulting in significantly less negative consequences from getting drunk.

REFERENCES

Hemingway, E., & Baker, C. (1981). Ernest Hemingway, selected letters, 1917-1961. New York: Macmillan Pub Co.

Winograd, R. P., Littlefield, A. K., Martinez, J., & Sher, K. J. (2012). The drunken self: The Five-Factor model as an organizational framework for characterizing perceptions of One’s own drunkenness. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 36(10), 1787–1793. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01796.x

Winograd, R. P., Steinley, D., & Sher, K. (2015). Searching for Mr. Hyde: A five-factor approach to characterizing “types of drunks.” Addiction Research & Theory, 24(1), 1–8. doi:10.3109/16066359.2015.1029920

Images via accsalgueiro0, skeeze, Alexas_Fotos and RyanMcGuire / Pixabay.

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